Disparate authors such as Celsus, Vitruvius, Pliny, Frontinus, Columella, Varro and Vegetius, show the Roman concept of health interwoven with the normal life and ordinary process of government in the Roman Empire. Vitruvius, a practicing architect in the milieu of the Roman Empire, shows through his writing how important sanitary planning was for public buildings. His chapter on city planning begins with a discussion of the salubrity of sites and throughout this section the influence of the Hippocratic tract Airs, Waters, Places is apparent:

“In the case of the walls these will be the main points: First, the choice of the most healthy site. Now this will be high and free from clouds and frost, with an aspect neither hot nor cold but temperate. In this way a marshy neighborhood will be avoided. For when the morning breezes blow towards the town at sunrise, as they bring with them mists from the marshes and, mingled with the mist, the poisonous breath of the creatures of the marshes [i.e., microorganisms], to be wafted into the bodies of the inhabitants, they will make the site unhealthy.” (De Architectura I.2-5)

Forum Baths, Pompeii, first century BCE Caldarium

One of the characteristic Imperial Roman building types is the giant bath complex which could house not only bathing facilities but lecture halls, gymnasia, libraries and gardens. Roman bathing establishments usually provided three kinds of baths, i.e., hot, tepid and cold. The room pictured above was kept warm by hot air circulating through pipes in the walls and floor.

Pont du Gard, Nimes, France, 14 CE

The aqueducts were the true triumph of Roman sanitary engineering. Frontinus, the author of a treatise on Rome’s aqueducts, became water commissioner (curator aquarum) in 97 CE. He recognized the sanitary aspects of his position stating bluntly, “my office...concerns not only the usefulness of such a system, but also the very health and safety of Rome...”

Latrines, well drained or with the provision for a semi-sanitary maintenance, became commonplace both in the houses of the wealthy and in bath complexes where there was a constant supply of running water. In lieu of toilet paper, Romans used a sponge tied to the end of a stick.

Public Latrines, Ostia, first century BCE

Terra Cotta Statuette, Taranto, Museo Nazionale, 350-300 BCE

Woman bathing. A woman, having removed her shoes, prepares to wash herself in a luterion.

Mosaic, Pompeii,1st century CE

The skull is symbolic of man’s fate and reminds us of the frailty of human existence. Rather than shrink from signs of death, the Romans seem to have employed them as reminders to “seize the day”. This particular mosaic was used as a tabletop. There are many extant examples of cups and dining areas adorned with skeletal motifs. In Petronius’ Satyricon, in the middle of a great banquet, a slave brings in a silver skeleton put together with flexible joints, and after it was flung on the table several times, the host Trimalchio recited: Man’s life, alas, is but a span So let us live it while we can, We’ll be like this when dead. Despite the advanced state of sanitation engineering in the Roman world, the average life span was only 30-40 years.

Galen